Introduction

Student conversation.

Student Sophie says, Hi, I’m Sophie, and I’m here with Anga. We are Grade 9 students and are here to help guide you as you learn more about physical and human geography in Canada!

Student Anga says, Hello! I’m Anga. We are both excited to embark on this learning journey with you! Let’s begin!

Welcome to CGC1W!

The goal of this course is to explore the rich physical and human geography in Canada, while also developing your geographic inquiry and critical thinking skills. Throughout this course, you will apply the geographic thinking concepts— spatial significance, patterns and trends, geographic perspectives, and interrelationships—to examine complex geographic topics, learn about the world around you, and become informed global citizens.

The geo-inquiry process is also a key component of this course. You will learn how to ask meaningful geographic questions, gather and interpret data, draw conclusions, and communicate findings. By the end of the course, you will use these skills and apply concepts from all units to conduct a community needs assessment, where you will assess the needs of a community and propose solutions to meet those needs.

In this first unit, you will learn about the landforms and physiographic regions in Canada by applying the geo-inquiry method and geographic thinking concepts. You will use mapping tools and geospatial technologies to explore topics like glaciation, natural disasters, and explore various career paths related to these fields. Using mapping tools, you will explore the spatial significance and patterns in these phenomena.

Getting started

In this learning activity, you will learn how the geo-inquiry questions—What is where? Why there? Why care?—are used to examine complex geographic issues and diverse perspectives.

  • What is where: gets one to think about when something is located in a particular place.
  • Why there: gets one to think about when something is located in a place for a particular reason.
  • Why care: gets one to think about the relevance of it all to better understand the world around them.

You will explore landforms (Lowlands, Highlands, and Canadian Shield) and physiographic regions (Arctic Lands, Cordillera, Interior Plains, Hudson Bay Lowland, Canadian Shield Forest Lands, St. Lawrence Lowlands, and Appalachia) in Canada through the lens of these geo-inquiry questions, and practice answering those geo-inquiry questions with a case study on thawing permafrost in Northern Ontario.

In this course, you will see a variety of icons. Press the Course Icons button to explore descriptions of each icon you may encounter.

Geo-inquiry

Definition

Geography

Geography is the study of the world’s environment, human societies, and human interaction with the environment.

Part of the study of geography is considering both human and physical environments and the ways they interact with each other. This involves learning about the physical processes on and within the planet (physical geography), as well as human activities, cultures, and how people interact and shape places and spaces (human geography).

Boreal Forest, Canada

One example of the interaction between physical and human geography is the Canadian Boreal Forest, in the Canadian Shield. This is a large natural region (physical geography) that is not only important for sustaining wildlife by providing habitat, but also for supporting many communities, such as Indigenous communities. These communities have been in relationship with the natural resources in their traditional territories since time immemorial (human geography). Industrial practices, such as logging and deforestation, affect the land, region, livelihoods of people who depend on it, and the rights of Indigenous Peoples who have stewarded the land for millennia. This demonstrates one of the many ways human and natural systems are interconnected.

Human and physical geography

Take a moment to explore examples of physical and human geography. As you explore the following images in the sorting activity, decide if they can be categorized as:

  • human geography
  • physical geography
  • both, which includes images that show the interaction between the physical land (physical geography), and human activities (human geography)

As you complete the following activity, think about how human and natural systems interact and influence one another. Place the cards into categories that best match. Use the arrow buttons to navigate between cards.

Notebook

Use your notebook to record your thoughts on the following question. If you need some examples, use your preferred search engine to search for examples that demonstrate this interaction.

Can you think of other examples where physical and human geography interact?

Acknowledgements (Opens in a new tab)

Landforms and physiographic regions in Canada

To understand our relationship with the Earth, geographers ask three important questions: What is where? Why is it there? Why care? They may even take it a step further by asking, What now?

Use these geo-inquiry questions to explore landforms and physiographic regions in Canada, helping you understand the spatial significance of these places, and how human and physical systems interact and influence one another.

Definition

Region

A region is a particular area of land that has common features.

Landform regions have similar physical characteristics, such as the type of terrain, or elevation. In Canada, there are the following three types of landform regions:

  • lowlands
  • highlands
  • the Canadian Shield

These landform regions are further broken down into physiographic regions.

Physiographic is a term that is used to describe the processes that have shaped lands through time. The terms physiographic and landform are now used interchangeably. Geologists, geographers, and scientists categorize regions that have similar features such as permafrost, treeline locations, and shape of land into physiographic regions. Permafrost is defined as ground that has stayed frozen for at least two years. In some parts of the country, especially the Arctic, the ground never fully thaws. Treeline is defined as the point where no trees grow at all. Treelines mark the boundary between forests and tundra. The tundra is a treeless region where you find only mosses, shrubs, and grasses.

Exploring the landform regions

In this learning activity, you will be exploring each landform and physiographic region by answering the following questions:

  • What is where?
  • Why is it there?
  • Why care?

Notebook

Review the following document entitled Landform Regions Chart (Opens in a new tab) to complete your notetaking. Organizing your learning into a chart is a useful method when breaking down and simplifying concepts. The notes you make throughout this course, including this activity, will help you complete the culminating assignment.

Lowlands

The Thousand Islands region, located in the Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands region, is characterized by its physical characteristics such as its flat terrain and nutrient rich soil.

Press the following tabs to use the geo-inquiry questions to explore the Lowlands.

This region includes the Great Lakes–St. Lawrence, Hudson Bay–Lowlands, and the Interior Plains. This region is generally flat, has nutrient rich soil, and as the name suggests, is low-lying.

Due to a combination of physical processes such as glacial activity, sedimentation, and erosion, this lowland region was formed. As you have learned in this unit, glacial activity has shaped much of the Canadian landscape. Glaciers left behind rich sediments which have made the soil in this region excellent for agriculture. Sedimentation is defined as the process of eroded materials such as soil, rocks, or minerals being deposited (or built up) in a new location. Erosion is the geological process where materials such as soil or dirt are worn away and transported through natural forces such as water or wind. Glacial activity is defined as the process associated with the movement and melting of glaciers. This process shapes landscapes. Sediments are defined as solid material such as rocks and minerals, that are moved and settle in a new location.

Despite being the smallest of the landform regions, it is the most heavily populated—home to nearly one-third of Canadians—making it vital to the Canadian economy. Indigenous Peoples have utilized these areas as sites of transportation, trade, and agriculture since time immemorial. Today, major urban centers such as Toronto, Ottawa, and Montréal, which are hubs for commerce and transportation, are located in this region. In addition, its rich agricultural land supports a large portion of Canada’s food production industry. Today, Six Nations of the Grand River protects the largest remaining Carolinian Forest in this area, helping them to ensure that the environment is also protected for future generations.

Highlands

Mount Robson Provincial Park, British Columbia, Canadian Rockies

Press the following tabs to use the geo-inquiry questions to explore the Canadian Rockies.

Highlands are mountainous regions such as the Appalachian Mountains in the east, the Innuitian Mountains in the north, and the Western Cordillera, which includes B.C. and the Yukon, in the west. Despite the far distances between these mountainous regions—the Appalachian Mountains being roughly 2,500 km from the Innuitian mountains and the Western Cordillera being approximately 4,000 km from the Appalachians—and being formed in different geological eras, they share similar physical characteristics such as rock composition. The Appalachian Mountains are the oldest of these highland regions, over 250 million years old, and were created by the collision of two tectonic plates—a major mountain-building event called the Alleghenian orogeny.

As you will learn in this unit, the collision of tectonic plates (massive pieces of solid rock), as well as volcanic activity, have created mountain ranges in this region.

This region is rich in natural resources such as forests and minerals that have been important to the Haudenosaunee and the Algonquin communities in this region. These resources impact industries today such as forestry, mining, and tourism. Mountains also shape the climate in Canada, as they influence weather patterns and water flow such as river systems, which are important sources of freshwater.

Canadian Shield

In this image of Silent Lake Provincial Park, in southeastern Ontario, there are physical characteristics typical of the Canadian Shield, such as hard rock formations, granite, lakes, and forests.

Press the following tabs to use the geo-inquiry questions to explore the Canadian Shield.

Covering nearly half of the country, the Canadian Shield, a forested region, stretches from Newfoundland and Labrador in the east to the Northwest Territories in the west.

Glaciers eroded what was once a mountain range and eroded the land, leaving exposed bedrock, lakes, and rivers that characterize the region.

The Canadian Shield contains many minerals, forest, and freshwater, and also many sacred sites for Indigenous People. These resources drive industries such as mining, timber, and hydroelectric power.

Note: Update your flowchart with the information you gathered about the landform regions.

When thinking about the ways human and natural systems are interconnected, consider the ways humans might be inspired by nature to create art. In fact, the Canadian Shield was a major source of inspiration for the Group of Seven, a collective of Canadian landscape painters.

Check out the following video entitled Wisdom of the Universe to learn more about Christi Belcourt, a Métis artist, author, and activist from Lac St. Anne, and her piece, “The Wisdom of the Universe” currently on display at the Art Gallery of Ontario.

Notebook

Christi Belcourt shared that, “all species, the lands, the waters are one beating organism that pulses like a heart,” and how this inspires her artwork. To reflect on how humans and geography are interconnected, choose a piece of art (either from your own research or from the video) that you feel connects with a specific landform region in Canada, such as the Highlands, Lowlands, or the Canadian Shield and answer the following questions in your notebook.

  1. How does understanding the geography behind a piece of art help you see it in a new way?
  2. How do you think the artist may have been inspired by the landform region’s physical characteristics and landscape?
  3. How does the artwork show the connection between the land and the people?

Take a break!

Great work!

Now that you have learned about highlands, lowlands, and examined how landform regions in Canada can be displayed through art, it is time to take a break before you use the geo-inquiry process to explore the physiographic regions.

The physiographic regions

As you previously learned, these three landform regions can be further divided into seven physiographic regions, which are regions that have similar physical characteristics.

A treeline of Madeline Lake and a small island near Yellowknife in the Northwest Territories, Canada

The criteria for determining these physiographic regions, which are significantly different from one another, are as follows:

  1. geological structures: this refers to the types of rock (metamorphic, sedimentary, or igneous) and the way these rocks are arranged
  2. how the permafrost is distributed
  3. the position of the treeline

Notebook

Examine the following map outlining the physiographic regions in Canada. Then, explore each physiographic region through the lens of the geo-inquiry questions in the following tabs and add your notes to your Landform Regions Chart.

A map of the physiographic regions of Canada.

The Western Cordillera region covers the whole of British Columbia and Alaska and a little of the southwest piece of Alberta and the western part of Yukon Territory.

The Interior Plains region covers most of Northwest Territories, Alberta, and southern Saskatchewan and Manitoba.

The Arctic Lands region covers the northern part of Yukon, the Northwest Territories, and Nunavut.

The Canadian Shield region covers Northern Saskatchewan and Manitoba, the eastern half of Northwest Territories, most of Nunavut and Ontario, Quebec, and Newfoundland and Labrador.

The Hudson Bay Lowlands region covers northeast Manitoba and northern Ontario.

The Great Lakes-St. Lawrence Lowlands region covers the southern tip of Ontario and Quebec.

The Appalachian Region covers a little of the eastern part of Quebec, Prince Edward Island, and Nova Scotia.

Source:

Natural Resources Canada Physiographic Regions of Canada Government of Canada. Retrieved on February 19, 2025, from https://open.canada.ca/data/en/dataset/a3dfbaf4-1b20-4061-aa0a-e7a79953f52d

Press the following tabs to learn more about each of the physiographic regions on the map.

What is where?

The Canadian Shield is the largest physiographic region, including the Northwest Territories, Nunavut, Québec, northern Saskatchewan, a large portion of Manitoba and Ontario, and most of Newfoundland and Labrador. Geological structures found in this region include igneous Precambrian rock, a type of rock that formed when molten rock (lava on the surface of the land or magma underground), cooled and solidified. The Precambrian era was the longest geological time period, dating back over 4 billion years ago. The treeline, which marks the boundary between Boreal Forest and tundra, is found in the northern regions of the Canadian Shield. Permafrost can also be found in the far north of the Canadian Shield.

Why is it there?

Glaciers eroded what was once a mountain range, deposited sediments (particles of rock, soil, or organic materials) that were carried by natural forces such as wind, water, and ice. Overtime, these sediments built up to create a thin layer of soil, but the underlying Precambrian rock and the landscape have remained stable over time.

Why care?

These Precambrian rocks found in the Canadian Shield are rich in valuable minerals such as nickel, copper, and gold, making this region significant in the mining industry.

First Nations, Inuit and Métis communities have lived in harmony with the land, relying on the resources in the Canadian Shield for their cultural practices and livelihoods.

What is where?

This region, located in the southern areas of Ontario and Québec and surrounded by the Great Lakes and the St. Lawrence River, is one of the most densely populated areas in Canada. As this region has a more moderate climate, the treeline is much farther North, meaning that the area has lots of diverse forests, and there is no permafrost.

Why is it there?

Glaciation has resulted in nutrient rich soils, mostly composed of clay and sand, and a landscape of rolling hills, such as the Central St. Lawrence Lowland, and flat plains, including the East St. Lawrence Lowland situated closer to the Atlantic Ocean. The land slopes gently from the height of the Niagara escarpment towards the Great Lakes. Glacial activity and deposits have formed lots of sedimentary rock layers.

Why care?

As this region is densely populated, has nutrient dense soil, and a temperate climate, it serves as a key agricultural region. Vegetables, such as corn, beans, and squash have been successfully grown and harvested in these areas and have been important food sources for Indigenous communities for thousands of years.

What is where?

Surrounding the Hudson Bay and bordering three provinces (Nunavut, Manitoba, and Ontario), this region is mostly a flat wetland composed of sedimentary rock (rocks formed on or near the Earth’s surface). The region has continuous permafrost, and the treeline is found at the southern end of the region, making this region mostly a treeless tundra.

Why is it there?

This area was depressed by the weight of glaciers, which deposited clay, sand, and other sediments. After glaciers melted, the region was flooded by rising waters, making the wetlands and mineral-rich soil composed of peat and muskeg, that characterize this region.

Why care?

As the region has a lot of muskeg and peat, formed by mosses and plants that decompose very slowly due to the cold and wet conditions, the muskeg and peat acts like a carbon sink, storing carbon for long periods of time. The region also supports many Indigenous communities and industries, such as fishing. The name muskeg is a traditional Cree word describing the geological conditions of the area.

What is where?

Stretching from Alberta to Saskatchewan, this region comprises 18 percent of Canada’s land surface. The flat and uniform landscapes are covered with sedimentary rock such as sandstone, shale, and limestone. The treeline is found in the far northern region of the Interior Plains where permafrost is also present. Most of the region has no permafrost and is abundant in coniferous trees such as spruce and fir trees, particularly in the northwest. The majority of the region is a grassland prairie, a region of flat or gently rolling terrain that thrives in a climate with low rainfall. The grassland prairies can be further categorized into the following “three steps”:

  1. the Manitoba plain (lowest and flattest)
  2. the Saskatchewan plain
  3. the Missouri Couteau

Why is it there?

Ancient seas once covered the region millions of years ago. When they retreated or gradually pulled back, sedimentary rock layers that are rich in fossils and natural resources, such as oil and gas, were left behind. Glacial movement and deposits created the nutrient dense soils and flat lands.

Why care?

Due to favourable soil conditions, which are ideal for growing wheat, barley, and canola, the interior plains are a vital part of the agricultural industry and the Canadian economy. These regions were historically home to buffalo and bison, an important part of First Nations and Métis life. Buffalo and bison are slowly being reintroduced as they provide significant benefit to this region. Its rich natural resources, such as oil and natural gas, contribute significantly to the country’s energy sector and economy.

What is where?

The Arctic Lands are located above the treeline, meaning it is covered by tundra. This treeless area has a rocky landscape, containing igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary rock. In the northern region of the Arctic Lands, bedrock, which is a combination of all three types of rock, as well as continuous permafrost, is typically found. Glaciers make up approximately 5 percent of this region’s land surface, which is considered a polar desert at higher latitudes.

Why is it there?

Igneous rock is formed when magma or lava has cooled and solidified. Metamorphic rock is formed due to extreme heat and pressure. Sedimentary rock forms when small particles, often carried by glacial movement or erosion, have been deposited, build up in an area and settle.

Why care?

This region is home to Indigenous communities, which include the Inuit, and Arctic wildlife, such as polar bear, caribou, and muskox. As the climate gets warmer and more ice melts, the area has become more accessible for tourism and shipping through the Northwest Passage. However, climate change and the melting of the ice have had detrimental impacts to Inuit communities and their way of life.

What is where?

This region stretches across many of the maritime provinces in Eastern Canada, including Newfoundland, New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and parts of Québec. There is no permafrost in this region and the treeline is continuous, with forests and mountains covering most of the landscape. Geological structures include metamorphic and igneous rocks, which form the mountains and shorelines.

Why is it there?

The mountainous terrain was formed by tectonic movements that occurred millions of years ago. Erosion has also caused some mountains to become rounded hills and valleys. Glacial deposits have created a variety of soil conditions, ranging from dry with few nutrients for agriculture to grow, to moist sandy soils that are great for agricultural activities.

Why care?

The Appalachians contain resources such as coal, iron ore, zinc, and forests, which are used for paper and lumber production and are important to protect for the health and well-being of future generations, especially against rising levels of pollution and greenhouse gases.

What is where?

This mountainous region includes the Rocky Mountains and other mountain ranges in British Columbia and the Yukon, and it extends into the United States and South America. In the Northern areas of the region, the treeline and permafrost can be found. It contains igneous and metamorphic rocks in the West, sedimentary and volcanic rock in the interior, and sedimentary rock in the East.

Why is it there?

The mountains in this region were primarily formed by the movement of plates, which collided and pushed against each other, otherwise known as plate tectonics. This collision of plates caused Earth’s crust to fold and uplift, forming mountains such as the Rocky Mountains and the Coast Mountains. Volcanic activity also played a part in shaping the mountains over time. Interior plateaus, elevated flatlands formed by glaciation and erosion, can also be found between mountain ranges.

Why care?

Due to the abundance of natural resources, industries such as mining, forestry, fishing, and tourism are thriving in this region. Recent wildfires that are the result of a combination of factors including climate change have significantly affected these local industries, disrupted travel, and impacted air quality. A prime example of this were the recent wildfires in Jasper National Park. This is an example of the complex relationship between natural events and human activities, a topic you will explore further in Learning Activities 1.2 and 1.3.

Case study: Thawing permafrost in Northern Ontario

Now it’s your turn to apply the geo-inquiry questions to conduct a deep analysis of a complex issue: thawing permafrost in Northern Ontario.

Complete the fillable and printable Geo-Inquiry Questions Chart (Opens in a new tab) to organize the information presented in the following TVO documentary. Your notetaking should include the following:

  • the physical and human characteristics of the region
  • the ways human and natural systems are interconnected
  • how thawing permafrost has changed the landscape

Check out the following video entitled TVO Climate Change Short: Melting Permafrost to learn more about thawing permafrost in Northern Ontario.

Exploring diverse perspectives

In this learning activity, you used the geo-inquiry questions to explore the physiographic regions in Canada, learning about the ways human and natural systems are interconnected. In doing so, you examined how physical forces, such as glaciation, plate tectonics, and erosion, have shaped the landscape, as well as the human activities that drive Canada’s economy.

Think

Reflect on the following question: How does thawing permafrost impact communities in Northern Ontario?

Coming up

In the next learning activity, you will take a deeper look at one of these physical forces–glaciation–and use the lens of the geographic thinking concepts (spatial significance, patterns and trends, interrelationships, and geographic perspective) to explore how glaciers have shaped the landscape and human geography in Canada.

Connecting to transferable skills

Ontario worked with other provinces in Canada to outline a set of competencies that are important to have to be successful in today’s world. Ontario then developed its Transferable Skills Framework as a set of skills for students to develop over time.

Explore the following video to learn about each of the seven transferable skills.

To learn more about each of the transferable skills, read the following document entitled Transferable Skills Overview (Opens in a new tab) to explore the framework and the descriptors for each skill. Download, print, or copy the information in the document into your notes - you'll refer to it in each unit.

Throughout this course, you will be given the opportunity to reflect on the transferable skills you are developing. Keep your notebook up-to-date and be mindful of opportunities to apply and develop transferable skills.

Self-check quiz

Check your understanding!

Complete the following self-check quiz to determine where you are in your learning and what areas you need to focus on.

This quiz is for feedback only, not part of your grade. You have unlimited attempts on this quiz. Take your time, do your best work, and reflect on any feedback provided.

Press Quiz to access this tool.